How to Write a Philosophy Paper free essay sample

Every paper you write for me will be based on the same basic assignment: state a thesis and defend It. That Is, you must stake out a position that you take to be correct, and then you must offer arguments for that view, consider objections, and reply to those objections. Put another way: you must give reasons to believe the central thesis of the paper. Some of you may have never written a paper like this before. So let me contrast It with two other kinds of papers you probably have written.First, I am not cooking for book reports: I dont want summaries of one or more of the readings, and I dont want you to compare and contrast what different authors say, or what different moral theories might say, about the given topic. Rather, I want you to stick your neck outtell me what you believe to be the truth about the relevant issue. We will write a custom essay sample on How to Write a Philosophy Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page And then I want you to defend that position. Of course, It might well be relevant, or helpful (or perhaps even part of the specific assignment) to discuss some particular author or view.But even here the emphasis should be on evaluating that author or view. Book reports, no matter how superb, simply dont meet the assignment. Second, I am not looking for thoughts on topic X, or meditations on X, or remarks on X. It just wont do to simply string together various reflections you may have on the given topic, even if in the course of doing this you embrace various claims, and offer some reasons for your views, before moving on to the next reflection. The paper should Instead have a single, central thesis.The point of the paper Is to state and defend that thesis. The various contents of the paper should be selected and organized so as best to defend that central claim. Stream of consciousness, for example, is a poor way to organize material, and is likely to include much that Is irrelevant to anything Like a mall thesis. ) No matter how brilliant, mere reflections simply dont meet the assignment. 2. So the paper should state a central thesis, and defend it. More specifically, it should do the following things: A) It should start with a clear statement of the thesis.This need not be the very first sentence, but it should almost always come in the first paragraph or two. Many papers never give a clear, official, precise statement of the thesis at all. They leave he reader guessing what the authors precise position Is. Dont do this. It may seem obvious to you what your position Is: It wont be obvious to me. Other papers do give a clear statement of the thesisbut not until the last paragraph of the paper. (Oh! Is that what the author was driving at! ) This may be a dramatic way to structure a short story; but It is a very poor way to structure a philosophy paper.I shouldnt have to spend my time reading the paper trying to figure out what your view is; should be able to spend my time deciding whether you do a good Job of defending that view. It is likely that if you cannot state the central thesis of the OFF trying to say. Try stating your thesis out loud. If you find yourself rambling on, then this is a sign you should think harder about what exactly your point is. (Admittedly, sometimes a reasonably short statement of your view neglects certain qualifications that a fuller statement would include.It is K to offer the general, slightly imprecise statement of the thesis first, and then say something like Of course this claim needs to be qualified as follows. . Or Of course this needs to be qualified somewhat, and I will note these qualifications, when appropriate, later in he paper. But if you find yourself doing this often, that is a bad sign. ) B) Having stated your thesis, you need to defend that thesisto give arguments, reasons to believe it. Philosophy is not Just a matter of asserting opinions, however profound; it requires backing up those opinions, as best one can, with plausible grounds.It is, of course, difficult to say anything helpful at this level of generality about what a good argument would look like, or what sorts of arguments will be most forceful, most useful, and so forth. To a large extent this will depend on the specific thesis being defended. But I do want to point out that learning how to develop and present plausible and convincing arguments is a skill that takes practice like any other skill. If you work at it, you will get better at it. I also want to warn you against a common error. Some people try to offer as many arguments as possible for their view.There might be a dozen or more in a 5 page paper, each argument taking up a sentence or two, or at most a paragraph. This is not a good way to defend a thesis, for the inevitable result will be that no single argument is developed with enough care to be convincing. Everything will be superficial. What you should do instead is take what you think is the one best argument for your view, or at most the two best argumentsthe most important and convincing onesand devote the paper to spelling them out, filling in the details, developing them.To be honest, a short paper is often barely enough space to present a single forceful argument with the care and attention it deserves. So you will do a much more persuasive Job of arguing for your view if you use the available space to spell out exactly how your single, central argument works. C) It is almost always possible to come up with something to say on behalf of a view, o matter how stupid that view is. So the real test is to see how well you can defend your position against objections. Thus a good philosophy paper will always consider one or more worrisome objections, and then try to reply to those objections.Once again, it is difficult to say in a general way what the best objections will look like. Sometimes they will note potential flaws in the arguments you have given (thus giving reason to think that the thesiswhether true or nothas not been well defended). Other times they will directly attack the thesis itself (thus giving reason to hind that the thesis must be false). Here, too, learning how to recognize and present the most significant objections is a skill that should get better with practice. But a helpful idea is this: imagine a really intelligent person who is not convinced by what you have said.What, exactly, are they likely to be complaining about? Here as well, it is important to avoid the common mistake of simply trying to state as many devastating, or most interesting, or most worrisome. Concentrate on those. Having given the objection, or objections, it is of course crucial to try to offer some sort of reply to those objections. After all, if the objection is truly worth offering in the first place, it should be raising a serious worry. Very well, then, where exactly does this objection go wrong? Why doesnt the objection convince you to abandon your view?Is the objection based on some sort of mistake? Or does it force you to modify your view in some way? You should not pretend that the objections are completely idiotic. (If they are, you shouldnt bother giving them. ) You should Just give your best attempt at answering them. 2 D) What I have said so far may give the impression that the right way to organize the paper is like this: Thesis, Argument, Argument, Objection, Objection, Reply, Reply. In fact, however, this is a poor way to organize a paper, for with an approach like this the various parts of the paper are not logically integrated.Better to raise the objections at the relevant stage of the argument. (Or perhaps you should state the argument briefly, and then go on to raise objections to it. ) Better to reply to the given objection immediately after having raised it, and then move on to a new objection, or perhaps to a new argument. If you do this, you might end up with something more eke the following: Thesis, Argument, Objection, Reply, New Objection, Reply, New Argument, Objection, Reply. Obviously, there is nothing magic about this outline either; a great deal will depend on the details.But you should do what you can to integrate the various elements of the paper. E) There are very few knock down arguments in philosophy. It is almost always the case that there is more than one plausible view on a given subject, and there are arguments for and against the particular position you are defending. Thus, if you have done a fair Job of presenting your thesis, offering arguments, offering objections, and replying to those objections, then the fact of the matter is that when the dust settles down, you will have to admitif you are honestthat there is something to be said on both sides of the issue.That doesnt mean that you must think it is a tie. Even if both sides are still standing, you might still think that, on balance, one side of the argument has the better of it: it seems more convincing, more plausible, better able to defend itself. Hopefully, this is the side you set out to defend. (If not, switch sides, and write the paper again! ) So a good place to end the paper is by briefly reviewing the major advantages and disadvantages of your view (as compared to the leading alternative, perhaps)and explaining why, on balance, you think that your view remains the most plausible position.Again, your goal should not be to try to convince everyone who reads the paper: thats a goal t hat its almost always impossible to meet. Your goal, rather, should be to give the best possible defense for your view, recognizing that, even when all is said and done, others may still disagree. 3. In writing and working on the paper, what should you do? The first thing you should o is this: think. You should do a lot of thinking before you try to write anything. You writing on. You need to think about the specific assignment (if there is one). You need to think about your views.You need to think about what position seems plausible to you. You need to think about your reasons for believing that view. You need to think about the weak points in your position. You need to think about possible replies. And you need to think about whetherin the light of all of thisyou need to think again. So dont expect to sit down the night before the paper is due and throw something off. That Just doesnt leave you enough time for thinking (and changing your mind). The first thing you should do, then, is give yourself several days Just to think about things, and to try to figure out what you believe. Once youve got a reasonably good fix on what you want to say, write a draft of the paper. Dont think of it as the final product. That may only cramp your writing and make you afraid to discover new ideas (new problems, new questions, new arguments, new objections) in the course of writing. Dont worry about getting it perfect. Worry about getting it down. Then, having written a draft of the whole paperput it away! Sleep on it. Look at it again in the cold light of morning, or after a day spent thinking about something else. With fresh eyes you will be 3 better able to see what makes sense, and what doesnt, whats relevant, and what should go, whats convincing, and what needs further development, whats clear, and what isnt, whats good, and whats garbage. Then, with an eye to all of this (and after having thought about the new difficulties youve discovered) write the paper again. Maybe you will want to discard the original, and write it all over, from scratch as it were. Or maybe you will want to use the original as a basis, and revise, expand, correct, and cut, as needed.Either way, the way to make it better is to rewrite it. I dont think I can emphasize this last point enough. There is absolutely nothing you can do to improve the quality of your writing as much as getting into the habit of rewriting your papers. Nothing. Ideally, even this revised version of the paper would not be your final version. You might revise it again. And maybe again. But even when you finally have a version that you are truly happy with, there is still something else you could do that would make it utter still: show it to a friend.Find someone else in the class, or Just some friend who seems reasonably intelligent, and ask them to take a few minutes to read your paper. Then ask them to tell youin their own wordswhat your basic thesis is, and how you go about arguing for it. If they cant do this, then the odds are pretty good that the paper isnt as clear as it should be, or isnt as well organized as it should be and this will give you a reasonable idea of what still needs to be rewritten. If you are really lucky, in the course of the conversation your friend may point out some important objection you overlooked.Or you may end up seeing how to make your point more clearly, more simply, more convincingly. So then you can go back and improve the paper some more. (Be sure to include a footnote acknowledging your friends ideas. ) Now I am under no illusion that many of you have the time (or the inclination) to do all of this: write, revise, revise again, share, and revise yet again. I realize that you have other classes, and other responsibilitiesand you also have a life. But you can think of this elaborate process as some kind of ideal, and do what better your writing will be. 4.Let me mention some of the virtues that are especially important in a good philosophy paper. Obviously enough, it is important to have good arguments: most of your grade will be a function of how good a Job you do of defending your thesis. But there are other, more general, aspects of good writing that need to be emphasized as well. (Eve already mentioned most of these, but they bear repeating. ) First, the paper should be well-organized. That is, the underlying outline should reflect a logical progression of ideas. Closely connected, second, the paper should only contain material relevant to the official purpose of the paper.The idea of the paper is to state and defend a central thesis. Many ideas may be reasonably relevant to the general topic you are discussing, but nonetheless altogether irrelevant to your particular position or to your particular arguments. Cut out anything that isnt actually doing some work for you. Third, write in simple, Jargon-free English. Long, convoluted sentences can be difficult or impossible to understand. And Jargon can get in the way of communicating, oreven worse-it can mask ambiguities and confusion; it can get in the way of your seeing Just what it is that you really dont understand.Sometimes people think that profound topics need to be discussed in a language that looks profound. But thats Just a mistake. There is no reason why you cant express your thoughts in simple, straightforward English. (Of course sometimes a certain amount of philosophical Jargon may be unavoidable, or even helpful. But it should be used 4 sparingly; and the meaning of any such terms used should always be carefully explained in the paper. ) Fourth, and closely connected to the last point, it is absolutely crucial that you strive to be as utterly clear as you possibly can be. Spell out your ideas as carefully as you an. Make it explicit. Make it all explicit. Dont hint at things, or point in the direction of your thoughts. Dont assume that it will be obvious what you have in mind. (It wont be at all obvious, and the chances are good that I will be confused, or at least uncertain. I havent been living in your head all these years. ) Spell out all the steps of the argument, even the ones that seem to you to be too obvious to need stating. Explain exactly what the train of thought ishow and why we are moving from A to B, but skipping over C, to get to K!Put in road markers for the reader, viewing what the paper has shown so far, and announcing where the paper still has to go to in order to arrive at its destination. Say things like: In order to defend my position, I am going to offer two arguments. The first argument has three premises Now lets consider each of them. The first premise was Here is why I think this premise is plausible But here is an objection to that premise. .. And here is my reply That covers the first of the three premises. The second, youll recall was. . . and so forth, and so on.Spell it all out, as clearly as you possibly can. You may reach a point where you think you are beating a dead horse on this clarity thing. Thats fine; I want you to beat the horse anyway. In all my years of teaching I have never seen a paper that goes too far in this direction, but I have seen hundreds make your paper as clear as it possibly can be. (If your paper is the one that finally goes overboard in this regard, I will happily tell you to ease up slightly on the next one. ) One further aspect of spelling things out clearly may deserve special mention.If you do quote from someone in your papereven if it is from one of the assigned addingthis should always be followed up by your own explanation of what the quotation means. (Typically, after all, quotes dont wear their meanings on their sleeves. ) You may need to explain any technical terms that the author uses, or summarize the authors main reasons for holding that particular view. In any event, quotations (like Jargon) should be used sparingly; keep it to a minimum. 5. Here are two things that you dont need to do in writing a paper for me.First, you do not need to do researchat least, not if what you mean by research is doing extra eating, looking at other works by one of our authors, or at secondary literature on some topic. Obviously, there is an important place for such scholarly research, and for many classes doing this well is an important preparation for writing a paper. But for my classes there is (usually) no need to do anything like this at all. Indeed, I would strongly prefer if you not do this kind of research. For what I am really interested in is seeing what you can come up with through thinking about the relevant philosophical issues.I want you to wrestle with the issues first hand, rather than getting your ideas r inspiration from the thoughts of another. In short, I want you to devote your time to philosophical reflection, rather than scholarly research. (l also want you to come to appreciate the way in which philosophical reflection is a way of doing research in philosophyindeed, the primary way. ) (Needless to say, if you do disregard my advice and do outside research anyway, and then find yourself incorporating ideas from other works into your own paper, you must properly and explicitly acknowledge your debts in the paper.And the same is true, of course, even if your debt is to a mere friend, rather than to some famous helicopter. ) 5 But if you dont do scholarly research, to find out what views have already been discussed, and what sorts of arguments and objections are out there, isnt there a serious chance that you will Just end up saying something that someone else has already said? Yes, its true, there is a significant chance that your paper wont be original in that way. But thats K, too-for the second thing that you dont hav e to do in writing a paper for me is come up with something that no one has said before.I want you to get some experience in thinking through philosophical problems for ourselves. You can do this Just as welland learn Just as much from the experience even if you end up reinventing the wheel. After all, if you do reinvent something as fantastic as the wheel (or the philosophical equivalent), that would really be quite an achievement indeed. Of course, it will only be an achievement if you do genuinely reinvent it: if all that happened was you read about the wheel from some unassigned reading, and then wrote about it, that would hardly be evidence of any kind of creative talent on your part. So thats another reason I usually dont want you to do research. ) Before finishing, it may be helpful to say something about picking a topic and a thesis. For many of you, this wont be much of an issue. Usually, for large, lower-level courses, I tend to assign a choice of specific paper topics. In that case, of course, once you decide which question appeals to youand which one you have something to say aboutchoosing a thesis will be fairly straightforward: its mostly a matter of deciding which side you come down on. But for some classes (usually upper-level courses) I prefer to leave things fairly wide open.If thats the case, then you can generally write n anything at all connected (reasonably closely) to the subject matter of the course. You might pick a topic that weve talked about in class, even though none of the readings discuss it. Or it might be something the readings discuss, even though we havent talked about it in class. Or it might be an issue which goes beyond anything weve talked about, or read about, but which is logically connected to issues that have been discussed. I wont quite say that anything goesthe topic really does need to be connected to the subject matter of the classbut I do tend to be fairly liberal about his. If youre not sure whether a given topic is legitimate, Just ask me. ) In any event, assuming you can tell whats relevant to the course and what isnt, the really crucial matter is finding a topic where you have something to say! My hope is this: at one or more points during the term, you have found yourself thinking that the class discussion Just didnt do Justice to some point of view that seems attractive to you. Or perhaps there was some view that got mentioned in the readings, and even though we didnt discuss it, you think its worth defending. Or maybe you think it loud be illuminating to point out where the view goes wrong.Whatever. Think back on the moments when you felt you had something more to say, something that goes beyond Just repeating points already made in the readings, or already made by others in class discussion. Pick one of those issues as your topic. Then you can concentrate on trying to figure out exactly what you want to claim. Thats a matter of clarifying and refining your thesis. It can certainly take some work to find Just the right topic, and Just the right thesis. Part of the challenge, of course, is to pick an interesting topic and an interesting hisses (there is no point in defending trivial or uncontroversial claims).But it obviously wont help to pick something fascinating and controversial if you dont have anything plausible to say in defense of your chosen point of view. Sometimes you Just have to admit that despite your interest in a given issue, or despite your belief in a given position, you Just dont have enough to say. Then you have to move on and try something else. 6 At other times you will have to admit that you have too much to say, that you cant possibly defend your position adequately in the limited space available. It is important to find something the right size.If the paper is too ambitious, you simply wont be able to spell out and defend your view adequately, and you will end up being superficial and hasty or unclear. Fortunately, with a little work, you can often find some way to scale back on overly ambitious projectsfind a piece of it that makes for a more manageable paper. Other times, however, youll Just have to go back to the No doubt, some of you have a fair amount of experience writing the kind of paper I have been describing. But others, as I noted at the beginning, may have little or no experience doing this sort of thing.Either way, its pretty likely that for a lot of you, your initial attempts wont represent the best you can do. But thats K too (though I certainly hope you will give each paper your best shot). I am not especially interested in whether or not you come into my class knowing how to write the kind of paper I am looking for. I mostly care about whether you come out of my class knowing how to do this. So if your work shows a clear pattern of improvement over the course of the term, Ill count the later, better papers much more heavily than the earlier, initial attempts. Thats a promise.

By And By

By And By the suicide note that Camp left indicates that he still loved his wife when he killed himself since he made many arrangements and told her he loved her many times. here is the note: Camp's Suicide Note Loma baby i tried to plan so as not to mess up yr kitchen. i loved you since the day i layed eyes on you you jus as pretty now as then. so it aint you Loma baby its i aint good for nuthin, which you know. its got so jusgetin out of bed every mornin is to much. i pact up my close and all in a box so you woodn have to fool with it. my leavin this werl dont have nuthin to do with you bein mad at me for not fixin the fawsit I bin aimin to do it a long time for the fawsit went to leekin.plese save my gold pockit watch for Campbell Junior i leeve it to him i aired it from my grandedy you know.Ocey Snead suicide note

Overview of Contractual Risk Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Overview of Contractual Risk Management - Essay Example These factors are even prevailing when it comes to upstream oil and gas operations. A typical example of such factors has to do with contractual risk management. Generally, contractual risk management has to do with an integrated process and responsibility of reviewing, analyzing and evaluating contractual risks of pending agreements so that once the agreements are executed, there would not have any repelling risk effects for the parties involved (Taverne, 2008, p. 32). Upstream oil and gas operations is one that is commonly plagued with series of disaster based occurrences that put upstream companies in so much risk of facing liabilities. It is in this direction that both operators and contractors, mainly the government has involved each other the signing of contracts that seek to protect the interest of all people involved. Even though on from a broader perspective, it would be seen as a great idea that there are contractual risks, the absence of an effective and efficient manageme nt system would result in a situation whereby the contract favors one side to the detriment of the other and it is for this reason that contractual risk management is always important. ... ncentrate so much on contractual liabilities whereby there is an adjustment in the liabilities that defaulting companies pay (Gordon and Paterson, 2011, p. 232). The cause of the changes has also panned around two major factors. In the first instance, economic disposition has been identified as a strong factor that influences the contract landscape. Often times, when the market is weak in terms of falling global prices of oil, suppliers most cases become highly desperate towards their work and strive to overcome their negotiating position as they often have weaker negotiating positions at such times when the market is weak. Subsequently, oil and gas companies would be highly defensive on the liabilities involved in the contracts they enter into. Such weak markets is characterized by low revenues and profits for the oil and gas companies and so the best ways they try to stay within their means of operation is to avoid further risks including contractual risks. Apart from the strength of the market, events of increasing oil spills and other forms of upstream oil and gas accidents and disasters also affect the contract landscape. A typical example of this can be cited with the Macondo incident in the Gulf of Mexico, which resulted in several concerns from stakeholders of the type of risks that upstream oil and gas companies should be dealing. Certainly, during such times, contractors become defensive by increasing liabilities associated with prevailing risks. Role of Operators and Contractors Ideally, in the effect of contract risk, there are two major sides of stakeholders identified. These sides are operators and contractors. As expected, the operators are the upstream oil and gas companies who take up the responsibility and task of drilling and transporting oil and gas

The History of Nursing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The History of Nursing - Research Paper Example In earliest times, nursing was associated with motherly care of infants and was termed as wet nurse. By the 16th century the meaning of nursing meant to attend and care for the sick. (Donahue, pp.4,6) Early myth and beliefs In early times it was believed that nurses required no formal education or training. They were unlicensed doctors, abortionists, midwives and counselors in the western history. For centuries, the nurses passed on their experiences to their neighbors or daughters. They were termed as â€Å"wise women† by the people. One early myth was that women were so trapped by their menstruation and reproduction cycles that they were not independent outside their homes. Another myth was that male professionals had superior technology. These myths were false since women were inherently healers for the poor. It was also found that male professionals depended more on ritualistic practices while women represented more humane approach to healing. (â€Å"Witches, Midwives, an d Nurses:A History of Women Healers†) Early sickness and disease and that change nursing care In early ages medicine and nursing were considered as one. In those times as medicine men developed, they were always associated with an inferior class of practitioners who applied the treatment, judged the quality of drugs and also dressed wounds. These were women nurses who carried practical knowledge of healing. Nurses were those women who received orders from the medicine men to treat patients. (â€Å"A History of Nursing:The Evolution of Nursing Systems from the earliest times†). In the middle ages nursing became important in religious life. The spread of plagues in various times gave rise to demand of nursing. Such women were called â€Å"sisters†. (â€Å"Nursing:Yesterday & Today†) Evolution of Nursing Nurses and Hospitals In Early ages hospitals were built in the heart of cities to serve the poor and isolate patients of contagious diseases like cholera and typhus. Hospitals had poor sanitary system and as a result infections led to high mortality rates among patients. With the development of skilled nursing care along with effective sterilization techniques, hospitals managed to reduce the mortality rate in the last nineteenth century. (Parker, Kreimer & Munasinghe, p.177) Women that Influenced Nursing Jensey Snow was an African American nurse who opened a hospital in Petersburg Virginia in 1820. She provided health care services to the community for the next thirty years (â€Å"History of African American Nurses†). Dorothea Dix was born in the town of Hampden in Maine. She was a teacher. She was also a reformer who brought many changes in the treatment of the mentally ill in the United States. By the age of 54 she inspected many institutions both in the US and in Europe for mistreatments (â€Å"Dorothea Dix†). Clara Burton was an American nurse born in Massachusetts in 1821. From young age, she helped the wounded who n eeded medical care. In 1862, she distributed supplied to the wounded soldiers of Battle of Bull Run. She even used to be present behind the lines during battles and for that reason she was known as â€Å"Angel of the Battefield†. She also founded the American Red Cross (â€Å"Spotlight on Clara Burton, Famous Nurse & American Red Cross Founder†). Lilian Wald who was born in 1867 was a nurse and social worker. She was the founder of American community nursing. She wanted that everyone would recognise

Paper #1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Paper #1 - Essay Example As such, at a personal level, epistemology guides individuals in knowing the truth of their natural surrounding and having justified beliefs on senses of the past lives, as well as natural environment and science. An example of this is the fact that human beings have direct experiences in the process of knowledge gaining. Hence, knowledge of description and gaining are important in human life. Personal position on ethics is that it is an effective tool for offering meaning to social moral concepts. Such includes right of action, justice and obligation of an individual member in society. As such, people are able to make moral decisions in both private and public life and can understand what constitutes validation for the wrong-doing and acceptable moral behavior in society. Such is illustrated by the perception of logical positivists when they developed the theory of non-cognitivism or emotivism that focus on the expression of preferences and attitudes of individuals. The consideration of these is the morality of objectivity and subjectivity. A key lesson from Socrates is the need for happiness. Socrates illustrated this by making two points, which are; happiness constitutes the desires of people and happiness is not dependent on external things, but on how such things are used. Hence, a wise person uses the money in the best way to ensure that life is better, but an ignorant individual uses money in a poor way ending up with a worse lifestyle. Happiness is essential since it makes an individual to have a stress free life and enjoy the each and every second spend on planet earth. Plato and Socrates also offer another essential life lesson, which is happiness and virtue are two things that are linked together. As such, an individual cannot enjoy one under forget about the other. Hence, virtue and knowledge pleasure contributes in satisfaction and full-filling a complete human life. Such is

The prevalence of Tetanus in Canada and India

The prevalence of Tetanus in Canada and India A critical comparison of the vaccination and hygienic influences on the prevalence of Tetanus in Canada and India. Tetanus is caused by a toxin, tetanaspasmin, produced by the bacterium Clostridium tetani (Guifoile 2008, p. 10). This toxin affects the inhibiting motor neurons within the body, causing muscle contractions to become erratic and violent. These contractions are extremely painful for the individual suffering them, the contractions being violent enough to cause the strongest of bones in the body to fracture. In the last century, around 1940, the likelihood of death if you contracted tetanus was approximately 90% (Guifoile 2008, p. 10). Over time, however, vaccines and effective treatment options were developed, decreasing the mortality rate of tetanus. The vaccination programs of two countries, Canada and India, are both considerably thorough for the protection against tetanus. Furthermore, Canada has a high standard of hygiene and sanitation, further lowering the risk of tetanus in the country. India, however, does not have as high sanitation or hygiene standards, which may have an eff ect on the protection of tetanus. Both India and Canada follow vaccination procedures in order to prevent tetanus infection. Because of this, tetanus in Canada is quite rare; the PHAC (2014) states that through the years of 1990 and 2010 there were approximately 4 cases per year of tetanus in Canada. In India, though the prevalence of tetanus has declined, it is still a major health problem [] with significant morbidity and mortality due to [] incomplete vaccination (Kole et al. 2013). Skowronksi et al. (2004) reports that in New Delhi, India, 53% of adults were reported to have no protection against tetanus. This is comparable to Canada, in which a study reported that roughly 55% of adults do not have protection against tetanus. Whilst less have gotten vaccinated in Canada compared to the number of adults vaccinated in India, Tetanus is still a threatening disease in India. Considering this, both Indian and Canadian infants are given the tDap/DTap vaccinations. In Canada, routine vaccinations for newborns are given at 2 months of age, then again at 4, 6, 8, and 12-23 months. The Canadian vaccination schedule suggests that children under the age of 6 should be vaccinated more than 20 times (Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC) 2014). Furthermore, Skowkronski et al. (2004) states that Canadian immunization programs are publicly-funded in all provinces. This is similar to in India, as the National Immunization Schedule ensures all children in the country under the Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) are immunized free of charge. Moreover, the newborn vaccinations are not done as frequently in India. Newborn children are not vaccinated until 8 weeks of age, then they are again vaccinated at 16 weeks. Another vaccination is given at 15-18 months (Viswanathan 2005). Whilst both Canada and India provide vaccinations against tetanus to newborn children and infants, this may not have any relation to the prevalence of tetanus in India, however, due to the tetanus bacterium being spread only by wound s or fecal-oral transmission (Ji, cited by Mercola 2012). The majority of fields and roads are contaminated with animal feces in India. Because of this, Kole et al. (2013) suggests that the farming population in India should be targeted for complete tetanus immunization as they may be exposed more often to animal feces and contaminated soil. Contrastingly in Canada, there is a largely higher level of hygiene and sanitation; unlike India, human or animal fecal matter does not sit in the streets. As such, the risk of the soil or environment having been contaminated by the tetanus bacteria is low. This may link back to Canadas low prevalence of tetanus despite the lack of vaccinated individuals. As tetanus spreads through fecal matter and the bacterium can reside in the soil, Ji (cited by Mercola 2012) suggests that hygiene, sanitation and proper nutrition should be focused on in order to prevent the transmission of tetanus and other fecal-oral route viruses. This may also reduce the morbidity of tetanus if a person is infected. Ji states: You simply cant vaccinate people out of [unhealthy] conditions, and as Indias new epidemic of vaccine-induced polio cases clearly demonstrates, the cure may be far worse than the disease itself (cited by Mercola 2012). Whilst Ji is discussing the affects of the 2011 polio epidemic in India caused by vaccinations, this statement can still be applied to tetanus as the process of infection is the same: fecal-oral route. However, tetanus can also be transmitted through punctures or wounds (Guilfoile 2008) which strengthens the link between Indias poor sanitation and hygiene and the prevalence of tetanus: many Indian people walk with bare feet, increasing the likelihood of stepping on a stick/nail/other such thing that is contaminated with the tetanus bacterium. Furthermore, according to Guilfoile (2008), has been found [] in the fecal matter of humans and other animals thus leading to the tetanus bacterium being common in the soil in rural areas in the country. Both India and Canada both provide free and routine vaccinations again tetanus (TDap/dTap vaccine), and both countries ensure newborns are vaccinated and are given booster shots. It has been established that both countries have fairly thorough vaccination schedules, though Canadas schedule includes more frequent vaccinations for infants. However, it can be thought that the number of immunizations against tetanus do little to protect against the bacterium that cause tetanus, as these bacteria are transferred via the mouth through fecal matter (Ji, cited by Mercola 2012). It can be concluded that India, due to fecal matter amongst the streets and the generally low standard of hygiene within the country, is an area of which tetanus infection is much more likely, with or without vaccination. Due to Canadas higher sanitation and hygiene levels, despite the lower vaccination rate, tetanus is much less prevalent there and has a lower mortality rate. Word count 968 References Mercola, J 2012, Confirmed: India’s Polio Eradication Campaign in 2011 Caused 47,500 Cases of Vaccine-Induced Polio Paralysis, Mercola, viewed 12 April 2015, http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2012/08/28/polio-eradication-campaign.aspx> Kole, A, Roy, R Kole, D 2013, Tetanus: still a public health problem in India — observations in an infectious diseases hospital in Kolkata, South-East Asia Journal of Public Health, pp. 184-186 Public Health Agency of Canada 2014, Canadian Immunization Guide, Public Health Agency of Canada, viewed 9 April 2015, http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/publicat/cig-gci/p04-tet-eng.php> Vijayalakshmi, M 2014, Resources, All For Kids India, viewed 9 April 2015, http://www.allforkidsindia.com/Resources/VaccineOptions.aspx> Vashishtha, V 2011, FAQs on Vaccines and Immunization Practices, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, New Delhi, India, p. 37. Viswanathan, R 2005, Get Your Tetanus Shot Today!, Rediff, viewed 9 April 2015, http://www.rediff.com/getahead/2005/jun/13tetanus.htm> Skowronski, D, Pielak, K, Remple, V, Halperin, B, Patrick, D, Naus, M McIntyre, C 2004, Adult tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis immunization: knowledge, beliefs, behaviour and anticipated uptake, Vaccine, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 353-361. Guifoile, P 2008, Deadly Diseases and Epidemics: Tetanus, Infobase Publishing, New York, New York, pp. 10-16. This form meets the 2006 requirements of UniSA’s Code of Good Practice: Student Assessment 1

Andrew Carnegie: The Man Behind the Steel :: American History Essays

Andrew Carnegie: The Man Behind the Steel I chose to right about Andrew Carnegie for the two following reasons. The first being his Scottish heritage, and second being his close ties with the city of Pittsburgh. I happen to have some Scottish blood in me but more importantly I am from Pittsburgh. Andrew Carnegie’s story of rags to riches is slightly more inspiring than that of Henry Clay Frick, his partner. As a Scottish immigrant Carnegie made his ways through the ranks of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. Upon passing on an offer for the superintendent of the Pittsburgh division of the Pennsylvania Railroad; Carnegie and his brother Thomas purchased an already running mill (Burgoyne 6). From here Carnegie built up the largest and most lucrative iron and steel works in the world. His character was often challenged by certain individuals and defended by others. It is common knowledge that Carnegie viewed himself as a man of the people since he came from humble beginnings. Conversely labor historian Harold Livesay was quoted in saying, â€Å"that certainly by the standards of ethics and conduct to which we would like to hold businessmen today, he indeed operated extremely ruthlessly (www.pbs.org).† Carnegie’s character, views on labor and actions regarding Homestead will be discussed more in depth further. The Homestead Strike of 1892 is known as one of the bloodiest and most bitter labor strikes in American history. Many though would consider it to a necessary progressive movement even taking into account the many lost lives. In order to understand what exactly occurred in Homestead during the summer of 1892 it is first necessary to understand the town of Homestead itself. It is important to point out the fact that without the mill there would be no Homestead, therefore making the mill the nucleus of the town. The mill was located along the Monongahela River in the south of Pittsburgh. Not having seen the mill myself I’m sure that it would have been a beacon to Pittsburghers, encompassing 600 acres of the river’s bank (Burgoyne 1-2). The entire of economy of Homestead was centered on the mill with all other businesses depending on the revenue dispersed by the mill. Store owners, bartenders, and seamstresses all alike depended on paychecks from the mill to spend at their respective proprietorships. There for the lockout of the mill did not simply affect the mill workers but rather all 12,000 residents of Homestead (Burgoyne 1). As for Andrew Carnegie, well he became the richest man in the world. In the year 1900 Carnegie sold the company to J.P Morgan for $480 million.